Anatomy.

Ureter. The ureter conveys urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The urethra transports urine from the bladder to the exterior. The collecting duct transports urine from the distal convoluted tubule to the renal pelvis. The prostate is part of the male reproductive system and its secretions constitute about 20% of the semen. Structure Function Ureter A muscular tube that conveys urine from the renal pelvis to the bladder Bladder A muscular sac that stores urine until micturition Urethra A muscular tube that conveys urine from the bladder to the exterior

Nephron. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. There are about one million nephrons in each kidney. Each nephron is made up of the glomerulus and the tubule. Blood is filtered across the glomerulus of each nephron and the glomerular filtrate is altered by the process of reabsorption and secretion as the filtrate moves down the tubules into the collecting duct. The collecting ducts empty urine into the renal pelvis. Urine moves from the renal pelvis to the ureter and into the bladder where it is stored until the person has an urge to urinate. The glomerulus is not the functional unit of the kidney. Instead, it is a part of the nephron and the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The tubule is not the functional unit of the kidney. Instead, it is a part of the nephron and the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The ureter is not a part of the kidney. Instead, it is a tube that connects the kidneys with the bladder.

The central nervous system and peripheral nervous system The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system comprises the cranial nerves, spinal nerves, peripheral nerves and ganglia. Functionally, the peripheral nervous system can be classified into the: Somatic nervous system (voluntary): They innervate skeletal muscle. Autonomic nervous system (involuntary): They innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, and viscera. The autonomic nervous system is a part of the peripheral nervous system. The somatic nervous system is a part of the peripheral nervous system. The spinal cord is a part of the central nervous system.

Synapse A synapse is a specialized junction between two nerves. Impulses can move from one nerve (presynaptic neuron) to another (postsynaptic neuron) via neurotransmitters in a chemical synapse, as described below: An impulse arrives at the presynaptic neuron. Calcium moves into the axon terminals and causes the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane. Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic gap. The neurotransmitters bind to the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to the generation of an impulse. The neurotransmitter is subsequently removed from the synapse. Another kind of synapse is the electrical synapse where ions flow from one neuron to the other through channels that connect the membranes of the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. The axon terminal is the extension of an axon. Neurotransmitter vesicles are stored there. The dendrites are extensions of the cell body and receive incoming impulses which they convey towards the cell body. Dendrites are shorter than axons and have many branches. Nodes of Ranvier are points on the axon of a myelinated neuron, not covered by a myelin sheath.

Long bones have a shaft (diaphysis) and two ends (epiphyses). Examples are the femur, the tibia, the fibula, the ulna, the radius, and the humerus. Short bones are cuboidal with a similar length and width. Examples are the carpals and the tarsals. Flat bones are thin and flat. Examples are the sternum, ribs, scapula, and bones of the skull, such as the occipital bone, the parietal bone, the frontal bone, etc. Irregular bones have an irregular shape. They consist mainly of spongy bone with a thin layer of compact bone. Examples are the vertebrae of our spine. You may use the chart below when reviewing the different types of bones: Name Description Examples Long bones Consists of a shaft and two extremities (epiphyses) which are covered by cartilage Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, radius, clavicle, phalanges, metacarpals, and metatarsals Short bones Cuboidal with similar length and width Carpals, tarsals Flat bones Thin and broad Sternum, ribs, scapula, occipital bone, parietal bone, frontal bone Irregular bones Irregular in shape Vertebrae, hip bone, sacrum, coccyx, maxilla, mandible, temporal bone, sphenoid bone, zygomatic bone, hyoid bone Sesamoid bone Small bones within tendons Patella

The vomer is a small bone in the skull that separates the nasal cavity. The vertebral column consists of cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, the sacrum, and the coccyx. The atlas and axis are the first and second cervical vertebrae, respectively.

The luteinizing hormone stimulates the Leydig cells to produce testosterone in males. In females, it stimulates ovulation. FSH stimulates spermatogenesis in males and the maturation of the ovarian follicle in females. Estrogen stimulates the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle in females.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates ovulation. Estrogen is the sex hormone responsible for the female secondary sex characteristics, such as: development of breasts widening of hips axillary and pubic hair Estrogen is produced by the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicle. In addition to the secondary sex characteristics, estrogen has the following roles in the menstrual cycle: It stimulates the thickening of the endometrium before ovulation (proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle). It stimulates the release of FSH in the first half of the menstrual cycle. It triggers an LH surge.

Phagocytosis of bacteria. Neutrophils phagocytose and destroy bacteria and other pathogens. They are the most numerous white blood cells and are often the first cells to respond during an infection. B lymphocytes produce antibodies. Basophils and eosinophils are involved in allergic reactions. Eosinophils help eliminate parasites and protozoa from the body.

Yellow bone marrow, Production of platelets. The yellow bone marrow does not produce platelets; instead, it stores fat. The red bone marrow produces platelets. T cells mature in the thymus although they are produced in the red bone marrow. The red bone marrow produces erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. The spleen filters and traps pathogens and damaged cells, which it presents to the immune cells.

Oral cavity is the correct answer. In the oral cavity, the teeth tear and grind food into small bits. Saliva moistens the food and the tongue helps to move the food and roll it into a bolus. Thereafter, the tongue moves the bolus to the back of the oral cavity where it is swallowed. There are 3 stages of swallowing: The oral stage, which is voluntary and achieved when the tongue sends the bolus to the back of the oral cavity. The pharyngeal stage, which is involuntary. Muscles of the pharynx contract and propel the bolus into the esophagus. The esophageal stage, which is involuntary. The presence of the bolus in the esophagus initiates peristalsis that propels the bolus into the stomach.

Partially digested food mixed with gastric juice is the correct answer. Chyme is partially digested food mixed with gastric juice. The bolus formed in the oral cavity is propelled to the pharynx, then the esophagus, and finally into the stomach. The stomach mixes the bolus with gastric juice through repeated contractions to form chyme.

Absorption of nutrients. The small intestine lies between the stomach and the large intestine. The mucosa of the small intestine has finger-like projections called villi, and the mucosa is also thrown into folds called plicae circulares. The villi and plicae circulares increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients. The small intestine is composed of 3 parts: Duodenum Jejunum Ileum The small intestine receives chyme from the stomach, bile from the liver, and pancreatic enzymes from the pancreas. It mixes chyme, bile, intestinal secretions, and pancreatic juice together. The small intestine breaks down chyme, absorbs nutrients, and propels the waste to the large intestine. Mastication is the process by which the teeth break down food particles in the oral cavity. Compaction of waste to feces occurs in the large intestine. The sigmoid colon propels feces to the rectum.

Adduction. Adduction pulls towards the midline. Flexion reduces the angle at a joint. Abduction pulls away from the midline. Supination rotates the forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly. Term Definition Flexion Reduces the angle at a joint Extension Increases the angle at a joint Adduction Movement towards the midline Abduction Movement away from the midline Supination Rotates forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly Pronation Rotates forearm so that the palm faces posteriorly Inversion Turns the sole inwards Eversion Turns the sole outwards Internal (medial) rotation Rotates the anterior surface towards the midline External (lateral) rotation Rotates the anterior surface away from the midline

Calcium binds to troponin and leads to the uncovering of the active site of actin. Calcium binds to troponin and this causes tropomyosin to uncover the binding sites on the actin filament to which myosin can bind. The process of muscle contraction is described below: An action potential arrives at the neuromuscular junction The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium molecules Calcium binds to troponin, which leads to the active site of actin being exposed The myosin head full of energy from cleaved ATP binds to actin and forms cross bridges The myosin tugs on actin and moves it towards the midline leading to contraction and shortening of the sarcomere ADP is released and new ATP binds to myosin The myosin head detaches, cleaves the ATP, and is ready to begin the cycle again

The cones are photoreceptors found in the retina. They function in high light intensity and, as such, are for daytime and color vision. The rods are another type of photoreceptor found in the retina. They function in low light intensity and are for night vision and black and white color. The lens is a structure held in place by ligaments attached to the ciliary body (an extension of the iris). They focus and refract light rays from objects, which enter the eyes through the pupils. The iris is a pigmented structure that regulates the size of the pupils. It is also responsible for the color of the eyes.

Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is a structure in the brain that lies inferior to the thalamus. It is connected to the pituitary gland by a stalk. It acts as the control center for the endocrine system. Hypothalamus produces hormones that regulate the activities of the anterior pituitary gland. These include: Growth hormone releasing hormone Thyrotropin releasing hormone Corticotropin releasing hormone Gonadotropin releasing hormone Prolactin controlling hormones The hypothalamus also produces hormones that are stored in the vesicles in the posterior pituitary gland, and they are: Antidiuretic hormone Oxytocin The pituitary gland is the master gland as it produces several hormones that regulate the activities of other glands. The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormone. The parathyroid gland produces parathyroid hormone and it is responsible for calcium homeostasis.

Sagittal A sagittal plane is a vertical plane that runs from the front to the back, dividing the body into left and right sides. If a sagittal plane runs through the midline, it is called a median plane. A coronal plane (also called a frontal plane) is a vertical plane that divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections. Cuts through the sagittal and frontal (coronal) planes produce longitudinal sections. Both of them run through the long axis of the body. A transverse plane is a horizontal plane that divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) parts. Cuts through the transverse plane produce cross-sections. PLANES Sagittal Left and right Median (through the midline) Left and right Coronal/ Frontal Front and back Transverse Upper and lower

Pulmonary vein. The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. The superior and inferior vena cava carry deoxygenated blood from the body into the right atrium. The right atrium moves blood to the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. The right ventricle sends blood to the pulmonary artery through the pulmonary valve. The pulmonary artery sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. The left atrium moves oxygenated blood to the left ventricle through the mitral valve. The left ventricle pumps blood to the aorta through the aortic valves. The aorta sends oxygenated blood to the body. Note that the pulmonary and aortic valves are semilunar valves.

Skeletal muscle Muscle tissues are responsible for movement. There are three types of muscle tissue: Skeletal muscle has striated (long, thin, parallel streaks) multinucleated cylindrical fibers, and its action is under voluntary control (you consciously choose to move or activate them). These are the muscles attached to bones. Cardiac muscles are branched, striated, and have a single nucleus. They are not under voluntary control. They are found in the heart. Smooth muscles are spindle-shaped, nonstriated, and have a single nucleus. They are involuntary muscles found in hollow organs that help move things from one part to the other. Examples of places they can be found are the gastrointestinal tract, uterus, bladder, ureter, and walls of blood vessels. Compact bones have Haversian canals surrounded by concentric rings of lamellae that are separated by spaces called lacunae containing osteocytes. The diagram below illustrates, from left to right, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and skeletal muscle.

Neuroglia Nervous tissue consists of excitable tissues and non-excitable tissues. Neurons are excitable tissues. Neurons are typically covered by a myelin sheath and have a cell body, an axon, and multiple processes called dendrites. The neuroglia, or glial cells, are the non-excitable nervous tissue. The glial cells are about five times more abundant than neurons. Glial cells support the neurons. There are several types of glial cells, and they include: Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglial cells Ependymal cells Schwann cells Satellite cells

Records electrical activity of the heart. The EKG is the electrocardiogram. It records the electrical activity of the heart. The P wave represents atrial depolarization. The QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization. The T wave represents ventricular repolarization.

Pancreas-Glucagon. The pancreas is found in the abdomen. It consists of the exocrine pancreas and endocrine pancreas. The exocrine pancreas produces digestive enzymes. The endocrine pancreas produces hormones. It comprises: Alpha cells, which produce glucagon. Glucagon is stimulated by low glucose levels via cholinergic stimulation. Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. This increases blood sugar to maintain blood glucose levels during starvation. Beta cells, which produce insulin. Insulin is stimulated by elevated blood glucose levels via adrenergic stimulation. It promotes glucose uptake by cells, glycolysis, and glycogenesis. The action of insulin lowers blood sugar levels. Delta cells, which produce somatostatin. Somatostatin inhibits both endocrine and exocrine pancreatic secretions. Parathyroid gland, Thyroid hormone Incorrect pairing The parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates calcium levels, not thyroid hormone. Thyroid hormone is produced by the thyroid gland, not the parathyroid. Adrenal cortex, Epinephrine Incorrect pairing Epinephrine (adrenaline) is produced by the adrenal medulla, not the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex produces cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens. Gonads, Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Incorrect pairing FSH is produced by the anterior pituitary gland, not the gonads. The gonads (ovaries/testes) respond to FSH and produce sex hormones like estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. Gland Hormone Action Adrenal cortex Cortisol Metabolism, anti-inflammatory, stress Adrenal cortex Aldosterone Regulation of electrolytes Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood sugar via glycolysis and glycogenesis Pancreas Glucagon Increases blood sugar via gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis Thyroid gland Thyroid hormone Metabolism, growth, and development Parathyroid gland Parathyroid hormone Calcium homeostasis Gonads Estrogen Secondary sex characteristics Gonads Testosterone Secondary sex characteristics

distal In anatomical terms, “distal” refers to being farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body, whereas the femur is closer to the hip joint and the trunk, making it proximal in relation to the tibia. Proximal would indicate that the tibia is closer to the trunk than the femur which is incorrect. Medial would imply that the tibia is closer to the midline than the femur, while lateral would suggest that the tibia is further from the midline than the femur, both of which are incorrect. Terminology Other names Meaning Anterior Ventral Front Posterior Dorsal Back Superior Cranial Above Inferior Caudal Below Medial Closer to the midline Lateral Further from the midline Proximal Closer to the trunk/point of attachment or origin Distal Further from the trunk/point of attachment or origin

Red bone marrow. Erythropoiesis is the process of producing red blood cells. The red bone marrow produces red blood cells and the process of erythropoiesis is regulated by erythropoietin, a hormone produced by the kidney. The thymus is the site where T lymphocytes mature. Yellow bone marrow stores fat. The heart pumps blood but does not produce red blood cells.