Anatomy.

Ureter. The ureter conveys urine from the kidneys to the bladder.   The urethra transports urine from the bladder to the exterior.   The collecting duct transports urine from the distal convoluted tubule to the renal pelvis. The prostate is part of the male reproductive system and its secretions constitute about 20% of the semen.   Structure Function Ureter A muscular tube that conveys urine from the renal pelvis to the bladder Bladder A muscular sac that stores urine until micturition Urethra A muscular tube that conveys urine from the bladder to the exterior

Nephron. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.    There are about one million nephrons in each kidney. Each nephron is made up of the glomerulus and the tubule.  Blood is filtered across the glomerulus of each nephron and the glomerular filtrate is altered by the process of reabsorption and secretion as the filtrate moves down the tubules into the collecting duct. The collecting ducts empty urine into the renal pelvis. Urine moves from the renal pelvis to the ureter and into the bladder where it is stored until the person has an urge to urinate.    The glomerulus is not the functional unit of the kidney. Instead, it is a part of the nephron and the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.   The tubule is not the functional unit of the kidney. Instead, it is a part of the nephron and the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. The ureter is not a part of the kidney. Instead, it is a tube that connects the kidneys with the bladder.

The central nervous system and peripheral nervous system The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system comprises the cranial nerves, spinal nerves, peripheral nerves and ganglia. Functionally, the peripheral nervous system can be classified into the: Somatic nervous system (voluntary): They innervate skeletal muscle. Autonomic nervous system (involuntary): They innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, and viscera. The autonomic nervous system is a part of the peripheral nervous system. The somatic nervous system is a part of the peripheral nervous system. The spinal cord is a part of the central nervous system.

Synapse A synapse is a specialized junction between two nerves. Impulses can move from one nerve (presynaptic neuron) to another (postsynaptic neuron) via neurotransmitters in a chemical synapse, as described below: An impulse arrives at the presynaptic neuron. Calcium moves into the axon terminals and causes the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane. Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic gap. The neurotransmitters bind to the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to the generation of an impulse. The neurotransmitter is subsequently removed from the synapse. Another kind of synapse is the electrical synapse where ions flow from one neuron to the other through channels that connect the membranes of the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. The axon terminal is the extension of an axon. Neurotransmitter vesicles are stored there. The dendrites are extensions of the cell body and receive incoming impulses which they convey towards the cell body. Dendrites are shorter than axons and have many branches. Nodes of Ranvier are points on the axon of a myelinated neuron, not covered by a myelin sheath.

Long bones have a shaft (diaphysis) and two ends (epiphyses). Examples are the femur, the tibia, the fibula, the ulna, the radius, and the humerus. Short bones are cuboidal with a similar length and width. Examples are the carpals and the tarsals. Flat bones are thin and flat. Examples are the sternum, ribs, scapula, and bones of the skull, such as the occipital bone, the parietal bone, the frontal bone, etc. Irregular bones have an irregular shape. They consist mainly of spongy bone with a thin layer of compact bone. Examples are the vertebrae of our spine. You may use the chart below when reviewing the different types of bones: Name Description Examples Long bones Consists of a shaft and two extremities (epiphyses) which are covered by cartilage Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, radius, clavicle, phalanges, metacarpals, and metatarsals Short bones Cuboidal with similar length and width Carpals, tarsals Flat bones Thin and broad Sternum, ribs, scapula, occipital bone, parietal bone, frontal bone Irregular bones Irregular in shape Vertebrae, hip bone, sacrum, coccyx, maxilla, mandible, temporal bone, sphenoid bone, zygomatic bone, hyoid bone Sesamoid bone Small bones within tendons Patella

The vomer is a small bone in the skull that separates the nasal cavity.  The vertebral column consists of cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, the sacrum, and the coccyx. The atlas and axis are the first and second cervical vertebrae, respectively.

The luteinizing hormone stimulates the Leydig cells to produce testosterone in males. In females, it stimulates ovulation.   FSH stimulates spermatogenesis in males and the maturation of the ovarian follicle in females.   Estrogen stimulates the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle in females.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates ovulation.    Estrogen is the sex hormone responsible for the female secondary sex characteristics,  such as:   development of breasts widening of hips axillary and pubic hair   Estrogen is produced by the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicle. In addition to the secondary sex characteristics, estrogen has the following roles in the menstrual cycle: It stimulates the thickening of the endometrium before ovulation (proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle). It stimulates the release of FSH in the first half of the menstrual cycle. It triggers an LH surge.

Phagocytosis of bacteria. Neutrophils phagocytose and destroy bacteria and other pathogens. They are the most numerous white blood cells and are often the first cells to respond during an infection. B lymphocytes produce antibodies. Basophils and eosinophils are involved in allergic reactions. Eosinophils help eliminate parasites and protozoa from the body.

Yellow bone marrow, Production of platelets. The yellow bone marrow does not produce platelets; instead, it stores fat.  The red bone marrow produces platelets. T cells mature in the thymus although they are produced in the red bone marrow. The red bone marrow produces erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. The spleen filters and traps pathogens and damaged cells, which it presents to the immune cells.

Oral cavity is the correct answer.    In the oral cavity, the teeth tear and grind food into small bits. Saliva moistens the food and the tongue helps to move the food and roll it into a bolus. Thereafter, the tongue moves the bolus to the back of the oral cavity where it is swallowed.    There are 3 stages of swallowing: The oral stage, which is voluntary and achieved when the tongue sends the bolus to the back of the oral cavity. The pharyngeal stage, which is involuntary. Muscles of the pharynx contract and propel the bolus into the esophagus. The esophageal stage, which is involuntary. The presence of the bolus in the esophagus initiates peristalsis that propels the bolus into the stomach.

Partially digested food mixed with gastric juice is the correct answer.    Chyme is partially digested food mixed with gastric juice. The bolus formed in the oral cavity is propelled to the pharynx, then the esophagus, and finally into the stomach. The stomach mixes the bolus with gastric juice through repeated contractions to form chyme.

Absorption of nutrients.    The small intestine lies between the stomach and the large intestine. The mucosa of the small intestine has finger-like projections called villi, and the mucosa is also thrown into folds called plicae circulares. The villi and plicae circulares increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients.    The small intestine  is composed of 3 parts: Duodenum Jejunum Ileum   The small intestine receives chyme from the stomach, bile from the liver, and pancreatic enzymes from the pancreas. It mixes chyme, bile, intestinal secretions, and pancreatic juice together. The  small intestine breaks down chyme, absorbs nutrients, and propels the waste to the large intestine.   Mastication is the process by which the teeth break down food particles in the oral cavity.   Compaction of waste to feces occurs in the large intestine. The sigmoid colon propels feces to the rectum.

Adduction.  Adduction pulls towards the midline. Flexion reduces the angle at a joint. Abduction pulls away from the midline.  Supination rotates the forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly. Term Definition Flexion Reduces the angle at a joint Extension Increases the angle at a joint Adduction Movement towards the midline Abduction Movement away from the midline Supination Rotates forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly Pronation Rotates forearm so that the palm faces posteriorly Inversion Turns the sole inwards Eversion Turns the sole outwards Internal (medial) rotation Rotates the anterior surface towards the midline External (lateral) rotation Rotates the anterior surface away from the midline

Calcium binds to troponin and leads to the uncovering of the active site of actin.  Calcium binds to troponin and this causes tropomyosin to uncover the binding sites on the actin filament to which myosin can bind. The process of muscle contraction is described below: An action potential arrives at the neuromuscular junction The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium molecules Calcium binds to troponin, which leads to the active site of actin being exposed The myosin head full of energy from cleaved ATP  binds to actin and forms cross bridges The myosin tugs on actin and moves it towards the midline leading to contraction and shortening of the sarcomere ADP is released and new ATP binds to myosin The myosin head detaches, cleaves the ATP, and is ready to begin the cycle again